WooCommerce Stripe Gateway stopped working

Hi, recently (possibly after later WordPress/Woocommerce/WooCommerce Stripe Gateway plugin updates) WooCommerce Stripe Gateway stopped working. It is showing normally on checkout, but when you entering credit card data and pressing “Place Order” nothing happens. No JS errors before and after, just adds small empty block, which is called in html structure “woocommerce-error” (see here – https://paste.pics/79ffb1c26122f55db35061b4a9b689eb). Woocommerce system status is all green. We’ve enabled Stripe’s debug log, but in logs there are not much useful info:
Yesterday:

2021-09-15T11:46:20+00:00 DEBUG
====Stripe Version: 5.4.1====
====Start Log====
customers/cus_HVA8BurB1mRVxL/sources request: Array
(
[limit] => 100
)

====End Log====
Today:

2021-09-16T10:46:07+00:00 DEBUG
====Stripe Version: 5.5.0====
====Start Log====
Your domain has been verified with Apple Pay!
====End Log====

2021-09-16T12:45:35+00:00 DEBUG
====Stripe Version: 5.5.0====
====Start Log====
Your domain has been verified with Apple Pay!
====End Log====
For now we’ve disabled this payment method and replaced it with other, as website is live and should work, but we may re-enable it for testing purposes.

The page I need help with: [log in to see the link]